MR SPENCE HISTORY
This unit will cover all parts of the IB curriculum.
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Paper One: Conquest and its Impact
The conquest of Mexico and Peru
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Paper Two: Early Modern States (1450-1789)
Spain, The Aztecs and New Spain
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Paper Two: Early Modern Wars (1500-1750)
Conquest of Mexico
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Paper Three: The Age of Exploration and its Impact
Spain in the Americas
1492-1598
We examined the political institutions of Spain during the unit on the fall of Granada. Still, we need to look further at the modes and methods of Spanish governance. Often you will be asked to compare and contrast the Spanish motivations for exploration with those of Portugal. The nature of the two powers' reasons for exploration are different. You need to understand how Spanish society and political entanglements in Europe, along with the Reconquista, created a desire for a religiously inspired empire of conquest. Columbus's failed experiments in the Caribbean fueled further exploration, which culminated in Hernando Cortes's expedition to the Yucatan in 1519. You will need to be able to explain how the disappointments in the Caribbean provided a long-term reason for the conquest of the Aztec. As with the Portugal unit, you will need to examine the impact of this exploration on Europe. In particular, examine the economic and intellectual impacts of the Columbian exchange along with the legal ramifications of the Treaty of Tordesillas.
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Spain in the Age of Exploration
The Aztec is our case study for a state in decline, even if they dominated Central Mexico before Cortes arrival. There is a misconception that the Aztec were an ancient empire that was wiped away by the Spanish. Whilst sophisticated cultures had existed in the America's for millenia, the Aztecs were interloopers who had dominated Meso America for less than a century.
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We (with quite a lot of hindsight bias) are going to examine what about their political, social, economic structures made them susceptible to conquest by Cortes. We will also investigate some of the myths about the Aztec that has been used to explain their defeat. The first idea that will be questioned is whether Aztec weapons were decisively to the Spanish. Rather, than weapons we will explore how differing conceptions of the purpose and methods of warfare better explain Aztec vulnerability. The second area for investigation is the Apotheosis myth (that where the Aztec presumed the Spanish were gods). In studying religion, the scale of the Aztec use of human sacrifice will be assessed. The Spanish used the custom to justify their subjugation of the Aztec, so an understanding of the practice is needed.
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You may notice that as we go through, there are not a lot of major disagreements amongst the historians. I have primarily used David Carrasco, Michael Smith and Dirk Tuerenhout who do not disagree with one another. They provide different evidence for their ideas, but in essence they are largely in agreement. This can be explained by the nature of the evidence. Most of our information comes from Spanish accounts, the Florentine Codex and the Codex Mendoza. Archaeological work has deepened understanding, especially over the last century, but the interpretation of archaeological findings is not generally disputed. This means there is much less scope for presenting differing viewpoints.
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Aztec Empire
The clash between the Castilian adventurers led by Hernan Cortes and his indigenous allies against the Aztec empire is a fascinating one. The war offers plenty of individual stories whilst illustrating some of the themes of race, religion, and imperialism that remain relevant today. Understanding exactly what happened is made difficult by the sources. A lot of our understanding has been constructed by the conquistador's accounts, which are called probanzas. These texts claimed impartiality but were produced in the hope of gaining greater rewards for the author's participation. They were more common in Spain due to the Reconquista. As they over-inflated the protagonist's role to justify the expropriation of property, a Historian has to read a large number of them. But of course, not every participant was literate or had the inclination to create one, whilst those that were created ranged from one or two pages to Bernal Diaz's 600 page volume. Even when we do have native voices, they are largely through the lens of the Franciscan friars who pioneered the ethnography of the Aztecs. But, the Franciscans owed their presence in Mexico directly to Cortes, and they saw the conquest as divinely sanctioned. Those that they interviewed would have no benefit from criticising the Spanish or challenging their conquerer's version of events.
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These accounts have been difficult to completely shake off. The influential nineteenth century historian, William Prestcott, relied on Spanish sources excessively. He presented them to an audience eager to read that a 'handful' of Europeans, because of their inherently superior qualities, could triumph over numerous barbarous natives despite the odds and hardships. This audience was well fed on a diet of the nineteenth-century European and North American versions of imperial and expansionist ideology. Prescott’s Spanish Conquests were credible and comforting, while the Catholicism of the conquistadors allowed the Protestant author and readership alike a facile explanation for the occasional, unfortunate excess or act of cruelty. The influence of this style persists in the works of Hugh Thomas and particularly Budy Levy. Revisionists such as Ross Hessig and Matthew Restall have successfully challenged previous narratives of the Spanish conquest. However, revisionists are stronger in dismantling falsehoods than constructing convincing counter versions of their own. All this means that there is much that is unknowable, which has led to academic disagreements. Rather, than being discouraged the debates around the historical methods used to illustrate this time are ideally suited to writing evaluative essays and providing material for your TOK essay.
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Conquest of the Aztec
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New Spain was created technically by Cortes when he created Vera Cruz in 1519, but his legality in doing so was not recognised by Charles V until 1524; the Viceroyalty of New Spain was created in 1535, which saw it encompass the conquered territories in North and Central America as well as the Philippines. We will cover the Political, Economic and Social systems that existed as well as evaluate the amount of opposition to them. I have chosen to end our study in 1598, with the death of Phillip II.
For the effects of early modern wars, you will need to know:
• Economic, political and territorial impact
• Social and religious impact
• Demographic changes and population movements.
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For an early modern state, you will need to know:
• Political organization and structures.
• Methods of government and maintaining power.
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While addressing these components of the syllabus, these larger historical debates will be addressed.
• How far was the Catholic Church able to change the religious practises of the Mexica, and whether their motives were altruistic?
• Did the religious orders improve the lives of the natives?
• How far we can see the Indians as being a tool of expropriation and exploitation for the Spanish, or, did they learn to become autonomous actors, well aware of their self-worth?
• Was the demographic collapse caused by a lack of immunity to European diseases or the cruel nature of the Spanish occupation?
• How damaging was forced urbanisation on Indian communities?
• How far did the native rulers decline, or did they adapt to Spanish control?
Did the crown establish control over the encomenderos and bring law and stability to its new territory?
• What was responsible for the century-long economic depression?
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New Spain: 1522-1598
The conquest of the Inca will not need to be studied in the same depth as the Aztec. You will only be potentially asked about the Inca for Paper One. Consequently, you will not need to evaluate different historians' perspectives. The exact syllabus is in the bottom righthand corner.The capture and execution of Atahualpa perhaps represented the apex of the Spanish brutality in the conquest of the New World. Pizarro had learnt from the conquest of the Indies and the Aztec to develop a very effective strategy. You will need to understand how he was able to capture Atahualpa and why the Inca did not resist as they pillaged their society. You will also need to understand the reasons for the emperors execution as well as of course the debates around what actually happened. While the initial conquest was swifter than the fall of Tenochtitlan, the guerilla campaign that followed dragged on for decades. The reasons why Pizarro was unable to create a viable colony in Peru were due to Incan resistance and divisions amongst the Spanish. You will need to understand the reasons for both issues.
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Conquest of the Inca
Potential IA Questions
How severe was the Castilian treatment of the Guanche population of the Canary Islands?
How effective was Castilian royal control in the Canary Islands?
How important were the Canary Islands to Spain's future conquests? 
Why was it Spain who took the Canary Islands?
Why were the Canary Islands less successful than the Portuguese colony of Madeira?
How far did Augustinian political theory provide the justification for late Medieval Spanish Government?
Did Isabella and Ferdinand reduce the power of the Cortes?
Was there a move towards a more codified legal system during the reign of Isabella?
How significant were the growing number of Hidalgos for the Spanish Monarchs?
Was it prestige that caused Portugal to reject Columbus?
How far was religion behind Isabella's decision to back Columbus?
Why was Columbus so certain of a westward passage to Asia?
How far was Columbus journey a royal decision?
How far did the Reconquista distort Spanish Social Structure?
How far did the psychology of the Reconquista permeate the Spanish settlers of Mexico in the 16th Century?
How far was the Reconquista produce a need for further exploration?
How 'mad' was Juana of Castile?
Did Charles V betray Margaret of Austria?
Did Gonzalo de Córdoba deserve the title El Gran Cápitan?
Why did Ferdinand of Aragon marry Germaine de Foix?
How far was the Treaty of Tordesillas a landmark in international law?
Why did Pope Alexander II overturn the Bull Inter Cantera?
How significant was the Treaty of Tordesillas in facilitating the Spanish occupation of the Americas?
How valid is Van Zanden's logarithm on wages and grain prices in proving the standard of living declined in Europe between 1500-1800? (Maths EE)
How far was New World bullion responsible for inflation in Europe in the sixteenth century?
How far was the demographic collapse of the sixteenth century caused by imported diseases?
Were the introduced species of flora and fauna more devastating to the New World than European pathogens?
How destabilising was Spanish silver to the Ming economy?
Was syphilis introduced to Europe from the New World?
How far was the discovery of the New World responsible for the Reformation?
How far is was Columbus responsible for the failure of the settlement on Hispaniola?
Does Columbus' deserve to have his statues torn down?
How effective was royal power in protecting the inhabitants of Hispaniola from 1492-1519?
How weak was crown control of Espanola between 1493-1519?
How influential were the ideas of Montesinos in Spain?
Did the Religious Orders protect the native inhabitants in Espanola?
Was Diego Columbus a better governor than his father?
How geopolitically stable was the Aztec empire prior to the arrival of the Spanish in 1519?
How effective propagandists were the Aztec?
How important was religion in creating an Aztec identity?
How economically integrated was the Aztec economy?
Is it possible to accurately calculate the population of the Aztec empire?
How great was the gender inequality in Aztec society?
How far was social mobility possible in Aztec society?
How far can we see that the Aztec practiced a values based education system?
Are 'flower wars' a European construction?
Did Spanish weapons offer a significant advantage over the Aztec?
Do logistical problems explain the defeat of the Aztec?
Does the psychological mindset to the approach towards warfare explain the Aztec defeat?
How much evidence is there that the Aztec believed in an imminent societal collapse prior to the invasion of the Spanish?
How much validity was there to the Apotheosis myth?
Is it possible for historians to properly account for the extent of human sacrifice in the Aztec empire?
How significant was the Grivalja expedition in encouraging Cortes expedition to Mexico?
How influential was 'Amadis of Gaul' in creating the conquistador identity?
Why did Cortes disobey Velazquez's instructions in February 1519?
How close was the relationship between Malinche and Hernando Cortes?
What was the military ability of the Spanish invaders of Mexico?
How important were the Tabascans and Totonacs to Cortes in his war against the Aztec?
How effective was Cortes control of his Spanish forces?
Why did Cortes 'burn' his ships in August 1519?
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How influential was native intelligence in the decision to massacre the Cholulans?
Why were the Tlaxcaltec forces unable to defeat Cortes?
Why did the Tlaxcala enter into an alliance with the Spanish?
How far is the Spanish success against the Tlaxcala due to a lack of alternative options?
Why did the Spanish head to Cholula?
What was said at the meeting of Montezuma II and Hernando Cortes in December 1519?
Who was responsible for the regicide of Montezuma II?
Did Hernando Cortes order the Toxcatl massacre?
Did Cortes engineer to have his own men killed in the 'Night of the Sorrows'?
Is Maria de Estrada's military prowess a literary fiction?
How close to defeat were the Spanish forces at the Battle of Otumba?
What explains the lack of preparations of Tenochtitlan for a Spanish return following the Night of Sorrows?
Why did Cortes embark on the Tepeacan campaign?
How significant were the indigenous allies in the conquest of Tenochtitlan?
How significant was Spanish naval power in the siege of Tenochtitlan?
How far is it possible to make an accurate evaluation of Cuauhtemoc as King?
How far were Spanish reinforcements the reason for the Spanish victory?
Why was Xicotencatl the Younger executed?
How significant were the indigenous allies in the conquest of Tenochtitlan?
How significant was Spanish naval power in the siege of Tenochtitlan?
How far is it possible to make an accurate evaluation of Cuauhtemoc as King?
How far were Spanish reinforcements the reason for the Spanish victory over the Aztec?
Why was Xicotencatl the Younger executed?
How Spanish was New Spain?
How divergent were conquistador motives for further conquest after 1521?
Why did Spanish conquests in New Spain become progressively more difficult?
How far should we view Bernardo Las Casas (1484-1566) as the defender of the Indians?
How extensive was crown control of New Spain outside the hinterland of Mexico City in the 16th Century?
Has the cruelty of the Enconmendero's of Mexico been exaggerated?
How effective was the control of the established church in New Spain?
How cohesive was Spanish religious policy for New Spain?
How legitimate were marriages in New Spain between the Spanish and Native Woman, prior to 1549?
How far was the state responsible for the end of the Enconmendero class?
How far was the self-interest of the Pilpiltin of New Spain responsible for their declining social position?
How effective did the Mendoza viceroyalty assert crown control in New Spain?
How far was it (any of the six factors in the document) that was responsible for the century of economic depression in New Spain after 1575?
Did Pizarro betray Almagro when he received his capitulacion in 1529?
How far do economic motives explain Pizarro's decision to journey to South America?
Why why Atahualpa victorious over Huascar?
How much planning is evident in Pizarro's actions in Cajamarca?
How believable is the first meeting of the Spanish and Atahualpa?
Did Pizarro always intend to kill Atahualpa?
How far was Manco Inca's insurrection the Pizarro brothers responsibility?
Why was the Inca siege of Cusco in 1536 unsuccessful?
Is there any way that the Inca could have removed the Spanish from Peru after Atahualpa's death?
Is it possibly to explain what happened at the Battle of Las Salinas?
How damaging was the Spanish infighting to their campaign against Manco Inca?
How extreme was Almagro's treatment of the Indians during his 1535 campaign?
Why did Almagro release Hernando Pizarro?
Why did the religious orders coalesce with the Mita system?
Why did the Encomienda system not prosper in New Castille?
Did living conditions for the native inhabitants improve in New Castile during the 16th Century?